Empirical studies on language-learning, migration and trade

Language learning is a fundamental skill taught in schools all across the World. In the European Union1, e.g. almost 93% of the pupils in 2019 learn a foreign language already in primary education (Eurostat, 2021). Language learning in schools is usually compulsory, it is likely to come with few or no costs and the acquired skills might affect later decisions in live, e.g. migration decisions. On the contrary, many adults decide to acquire foreign language skills voluntarily. In that case the direction of causality can be the opposite to that with language learning during childhood or adolescence. The determinants of foreign language skills and their benets can be approached from two perspectives, the aggregated macro-perspective and the individual micro-perspective. While Part I focusses on adult language learning on the macro-level, Part II uses a micro perspective on language learning. Part III remains on the individual perspective, but concentrates more generally on migration intentions and aspirations, very important aspects of adult language learning.